What Sharply Changed the Mood of the 1920ã¢â‚¬â„¢s and Ended the Current Fashions?

The Jazz Historic period

Jazz music exploded as popular entertainment in the 1920s and brought African-American culture to the white eye class.

Learning Objectives

Analyze the development of jazz during the 1920s

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• The Jazz Age was a mail-World War I movement in the 1920s from which jazz music and dance emerged. Although the era concluded with the start of the Corking Low in 1929, jazz has lived on in American popular civilisation.
• The birth of jazz music is credited to African Americans, simply both blackness and white Americans alike are responsible for its immense rising in popularity.
• The rise of jazz coincided with the rising of radio circulate and recording technology, which spawned the popular "potter palm" shows that included big-band jazz performances.
• Female singers such every bit Bessie Smith emerged during this menses of postwar equality and open sexuality, paving the way for future female artists.

Key Terms

• Charleston: A 1920s-era trip the light fantastic popularized by African Americans and named for the city of Charleston, South Carolina.
• potter palm: A pop type of radio show consisting of amateur concerts and big-band jazz performances broadcast from cities such every bit New York and Chicago.
• flapper: A young woman whose unconventional clothing and progressive attitude personified the free spirit of the Roaring Twenties and the Jazz Age.

If liberty was the mindset of the Roaring Twenties, so jazz was the soundtrack. The Jazz Historic period was a cultural menses and move that took place in America during the 1920s from which both new styles of music and dance emerged. Largely credited to African Americans employing new musical techniques along with traditional African traditions, jazz soon expanded to America'southward white middle class.

Birth of Jazz

Following World State of war I, big numbers of jazz musicians migrated from New Orleans to major northern cities such as Chicago and New York, leading to a wider dispersal of jazz equally different styles developed in different cities. As the 1920s progressed, jazz rose in popularity and helped to generate a cultural shift. Because of its popularity in speakeasies, illegal nightclubs where booze was sold during Prohibition, and its proliferation due to the emergence of more advanced recording devices, jazz became very popular in a short amount of time, with stars including Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, and Chick Webb. Several famous entertainment venues such every bit the Apollo Theater and the Cotton Guild came to epitomize the Jazz Age.

Cab Calloway: Cab Calloway became one of the most popular musicians of the Jazz Age in the 1920s.

Growth of Jazz

African-American jazz was played more oftentimes on urban radio stations than on their suburban counterparts. Young people of the 1920s were influenced past jazz to rebel against the traditional civilization of previous generations, a rebellion that went hand-in-hand with fads such as the bold fashion statements of the flappers and new radio concerts.

Dances such as the Charleston, developed by African Americans, instantly became pop among different demographics, including among immature white people. With the introduction of big-scale radio broadcasts in 1922, Americans were able to feel different styles of music without physically visiting a jazz club. Through its broadcasts and concerts, the radio provided Americans with a trendy new avenue for exploring unfamiliar cultural experiences from the condolement of their living rooms. The about popular type of radio evidence was a "potter palm," an apprentice concert and big-band jazz performance broadcast from New York and Chicago.

The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra, 1921: During the Jazz Historic period, pop music included current dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes.

Due to the racial prejudice prevalent at most radio stations, white American jazz artists received much more air time than black jazz artists such equally Louis Armstrong, Jelly Curlicue Morton, and Joe "Male monarch" Oliver. Big-band jazz, like that of James Reese in Europe and Fletcher Henderson in New York, was likewise popular on the radio and brought an African-American way and influence to a predominantly white cultural scene.

"The Jelly Roll Blues": "The Jelly Ringlet Blues" was 1 of the starting time jazz songs to reach a widespread audience through radio play.

Flappers and Ladies of Jazz

The surfacing of flappers—women noted for their flamboyant style of dress, progressive attitudes, and modernized morals—began to captivate society during the Jazz Age. This coincided with a period in American society during which many more than opportunities became available for women, in their social lives and specially in the entertainment industry.

Several famous female musicians emerged during the 1920s, including Bessie Smith, who garnered attending not merely because she was a cracking vocalizer, but also because she was a black woman. It was not until the 1930s and 1940s, nevertheless, that female jazz and blues singers such as Smith, Ella Fitzgerald, and Billie Vacation were truly recognized and respected as successful artists throughout the music industry. Their persistence paved the manner for many more female artists who came afterward.

Bessie Smith: The music of singer Bessie Smith was immensely pop during the Jazz Age, and she both influenced and paved the way for generations of female artists.

Although the Jazz Historic period ended as the Great Depression struck and victimized America throughout the 1930s, jazz has lived on in American popular culture and remains a vibrant musical genre to this twenty-four hour period.

Fine art Movements of the 1920s

Art Deco was a dominant design way of the 1920s artistic era that too was influenced by the Dada, Expressionist, and Surrealist movements.

Learning Objectives

Draw pop art movements of the 1920s

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The 1920s was a period of significant artistic growth that included definable schools of design, architecture, and art that are all the same recognizable and influential today.
• Art Deco was the dominant style of design and architecture in the 1920s. It originated and spread throughout Europe before making its presence felt in N American pattern.
• Expressionism and Surrealism were pop art movements in the 1920s that originated in Europe. Surrealism involved elements of surprise and unexpected juxtapositions, and both movements embraced a philosophy of nonconformity.
• Dada  began in Zürich, Switzerland, and the style incorporated nonsense, absurdity, and cubist elements.

Key Terms

• Dada: A cultural move that began in Zürich, Switzerland, during Globe War I and peaked from 1916 to 1920. The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature (mainly verse), theatre, and graphic pattern, and was characterized past nihilism, deliberate irrationality, disillusionment, cynicism, adventure, randomness, and the rejection of the prevailing standards in art.
• Expressionism and Surrealism: Avant-garde modernist cultural movements, originating in Europe in the early on twentieth century.
• Art Deco: An eclectic creative and design style that began in Paris in the 1920s and flourished internationally throughout the 1930s and into the Earth War Ii era.

The 1920s was a remarkable menstruation of inventiveness that brought along new, bold movements that inverse the style the earth looked at itself, both externally and internally. In design and architecture, Art Deco originated in Europe and spread throughout the continent earlier its influence moved across the Atlantic to N America. In fine art, the movements known as Expressionism, Dada, and Surrealism all played major roles in reconfiguring the focus and perception not only of visual arts, but also of literature, drama, and design.

Art Deco

Fine art Deco was a ascendant way in design and compages of the 1920s. Originating in Europe, it spread throughout western Europe and North America in the mid-1920s and remained pop through the 1930s and early on 1940s, waning only after World War II. The name "Art Deco" is brusk for Arts Décoratifs, which came from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes (International Exposition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts) held in Paris in 1925. The first use of the term is attributed to architect Charles-Edouard Jeanneret-Gris, known as "Le Corbusier," who wrote a series of manufactures titled, "1925 Expo: Arts Déco," in his journal, L'Esprit Nouveau.

The eclectic style emerged from the years between World War I and World War 2, often referred to as the interwar menstruation, and combined traditional craft motifs with Car Historic period imagery and materials and an encompass of technology. Visually it is characterized by rich colors, lavish ornamentation, and geometric shapes. Artists employing the Fine art Deco fashion often drew inspiration from nature and initially favored curved lines, though rectilinear designs became increasingly pop.

The Chrysler Edifice: Art Deco architectural mode in the United states of america was epitomized by the Chrysler Building in New York City.

In the United States, New York Urban center's Chrysler Building typified the Art Deco style. Other American examples can exist found in Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The Hoover Dam, constructed between 1931 and 1936 on the border betwixt Nevada and Arizona, includes Fine art Deco motifs throughout the structure including its h2o-intake towers and brass elevator doors.

Expressionism, Dada, and Surrealism

German Expressionism began earlier Earth War I and exerted a strong influence on artists who followed throughout the 1920s. Initially focused on poetry and painting, Expressionism typically presented the earth from a solely subjective perspective, radically distorting it for an emotional result that evokes moods or ideas rather than physical reality. Many artists, notwithstanding, began to oppose Expressionist tendencies every bit the decade advanced.

The works of Vincent van Gogh and Edvard Munch's famous 1893 painting, The Scream, are thought to have influenced Expressionists, who counted amidst their numbers painters such every bit Wassily Kandinsky, Erich Heckel, and Franz Marc, every bit well as dancer Mary Wigman.

The Scream: Edvard Munch's 1893 painting, The Scream, influenced twentieth-century Expressionist artists.

Dada began in Zurich, Switzerland, during World War I and became an international phenomenon, although information technology was initially an informal movement intended to protest the outbreak of World State of war I and the bourgeois, nationalist, and colonialist interests that Dadaists believed were root causes of the conflict. The motility opposed cultural and intellectual conformity in art and in social club in full general, usually displaying political affinities with the radical left. The reason and logic of the capitalist organization had led to the war, Dadaists believed, and their rejection of that ideology led to an embrace of chaos and irrationality in their fine art. Machines, applied science, and Cubist elements were features of their piece of work.

Dada artists met and formed groups of like-minded peers in Paris, Berlin, Cologne, and New York City who engaged in activities such as public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art and literary journals. Notable Dadaists included Richard Huelsenbeck, who established the Berlin group, and George Grosz, who called his work a protestation, "against this world of mutual destruction."

Republican Automatons: The 1920 painting, Republican Automatons, past George Grosz was an case of Dadaist protest art.

Arising from Dada activities during World War I and centered in Paris, Surrealism was a cultural move that began in the early on 1920s. Surrealism spread around the world and impacted the visual arts, literature, theater, moving-picture show, and music. The movement also informed political thought and practice, philosophy, and social theory.

The Elephant Celebes: Max Ernst's 1921 oil painting, The Elephant Celebes, was an example of European Surrealism, which profoundly influenced the creative culture of the United States.

Surrealist works featured elements of surprise, unexpected juxtapositions, and non sequitur. Many Surrealist artists and writers regarded their work equally the material expression of the move's philosophy. The motion's leader, French anarchist and antifascist writer André Breton, emphasized that Surrealism was, in a higher place all, a revolutionary movement. In 1924 he published the Surrealist Manifesto, which chosen the movement "pure psychic automatism." Castilian painter Salvador Dali, best known for his 1931 piece of work, The Persistence of Memory, was one of the most famous practitioners of Surrealism.

The Persistence of Memory: Salvador Dali'south 1931 painting, The Persistence of Memory, is one of the most well-known examples of Surrealism.

Cinema

The 1920s are often referred to as the "Golden Age of Hollywood," with "talkies" and the beginning all-color features replacing silent films.

Learning Objectives

Describe movie house in the 1920s

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The 1920s in cinema spawned the first feature with sound effects and music, Don Juan, and the outset movie with talking sequences, The Jazz  Vocaliser.
• Following the ascent of  talkies, large studios began acquiring motion picture-theater chains across the land.
• Cartoon shorts were pop in picture show theaters during this time; the late 1920s saw the emergence of Walt Disney.
• Nigh Hollywood pictures adhered closely to formulas—Western, slapstick comedy,  musical, blithe drawing, biopic—and the same creative teams often worked on motion-picture show, made by the same studio.

Key Terms

• Talkies: The nickname given to movies with sound, which ended the era of silent films in Hollywood.
• Gold Age of Hollywood: A period during which Hollywood studios prolifically produced movies; it lasted from the stop of the silent era in American movie theater in the late 1920s to the early on 1960s.
• Don Juan: A 1926 Warner Bros. film, directed past Alan Crosland. Information technology was the showtime feature-length film with synchronized Vitaphone sound effects and musical soundtrack, though it has no spoken dialogue.

At the beginning of the 1920s, films were silent and colorless. Past the end of the decade, movie theater had inverse significantly with major leaps in technology that marked the "Golden Age of Hollywood" and concluded the era of the silent movie, which itself had concluded the previous, widespread popularity of vaudeville theater. Box-office sales leapt to new heights as the studio system became the ascendant business model in pic making.

Color and Talkies

The first all-color characteristic, The Toll of the Body of water, was released in 1922, with the next big leap coming in 1926 with the Warner Brothers Pictures (later shortened to Warner Bros.) release of Don Juan,the first feature with sound effects and music. In 1927, Warner Bros. followed that cinematic milestone with another in the form of The Jazz Singer,the first audio feature to include limited talking sequences. This release arguably launched what came to exist known as the "Gilded Age of Hollywood."

The Jazz Singer, 1927: Theatrical poster for The Jazz Vocalizer, the commencement characteristic motion-picture show to include talking sequences, which began the era of "talkies."

The public went wild for "talkies," and movie studios converted to sound almost overnight. In 1928, Warner Bros. releasedLights of New York , the first all-talking characteristic film. In the same year, the first sound cartoon, "Dinner Time," was released. Warner Bros. ended the decade in 1929 past unveiling the beginning all-color, all-talking feature film,On with the Show.

Animation

Cartoon shorts, using the moving sketch technique of animation, were popular in movie theaters during this time. The late 1920s saw the emergence of Walt Disney and his eponymous studio. Disney's marquee character, Mickey Mouse, made his debut in "Steamboat Willie" on November 18, 1928, at the Colony Theater in New York City. Mickey would proceed to star in more than than 120 cartoon shorts, also every bit in "The Mickey Mouse Club" and other specials. This jump-started Walt Disney Studios and led to the cosmos of other characters going into the 1930s. Oswald, a character created by Disney in 1927 before Mickey, was contracted by Universal Studios for distribution purposes and starred in a series of shorts between 1927 and 1928. He was the outset Disney character to be merchandised.

Walt Disney: In 1928, Walt Disney gave the world "Steamboat Willie," aka Mickey Mouse, followed by numerous other drawing characters who have become instantly recognizable.

The Studios and Stars

Nigh Hollywood pictures adhered closely to formulas—Western, slapstick comedy, musical, blithe drawing, or biopic—and the same creative teams often worked on films made by the aforementioned studio. Cedric Gibbons and Herbert Stothart always worked on MGM films, Alfred Newman worked at 20th Century Play a joke on for xx years, Cecil B. DeMille's films were virtually all made at Paramount Pictures, and managing director Henry King's films were mostly made for 20th Century Play a trick on.

Each studio had its own style and characteristic touches. Films were likewise hands recognizable as the product of a specific studio largely based on the actors who appeared. MGM, for example, claimed it had contracted, "more than stars than there are in heaven."

The period saw the emergence of box-function stars, many of whom are still household names, such as Mae Murray, Ramón Novarro, Rudolph Valentino, Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd, Warner Baxter, Clara Bow, Louise Brooks, Bebe Daniels, Billie Dove, Dorothy Mackaill, Mary Astor, Nancy Carroll, Janet Gaynor, Charles Farrell, William Haines, Conrad Nagel, John Gilbert, Greta Garbo, Dolores del Río, Norma Talmadge, Colleen Moore, Nita Naldi, John Barrymore, Norma Shearer, Joan Crawford, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, Anna May Wong, and Al Jolson.

Louise Brooks: American extra Louise Brooks was 1 of the box-office stars who became famous in the 1920s at the outset of the "Golden Age of Hollywood."

Each of these stars was contracted to work for a specific studio and distribution company, which was ane aspect of the studio system that became the ascendant Hollywood business model and continues today, albeit in a far less restrictive form that does non tie actors to any specific company.

Theater Monopolies

After the release and huge success of The Jazz Vocalist in 1927, Warner Bros. was able to larn its own string of film theaters, purchasing Stanley Theaters and Kickoff National Productions in 1928. MGM had owned the Loews string of theaters since its formation in 1924, while the Play a joke on Film Corporation endemic the Play a joke on Theatre chain. Paramount, which had already acquired Balaban and Katz in 1926, purchased a number of theaters in the belatedly 1920s, to the betoken of holding a monopoly on theaters in Detroit, Michigan. By the 1930s, all of America'southward theaters were owned by the "Big Five" studios: MGM, Paramount Pictures, RKO, Warner Bros., and 2oth Century Fox.

The Toll of the Sea, 1922: The Toll of the Sea, released in 1922, was the first color feature made in Hollywood.

Flappers

Flappers were the personification of a new spirit in manner, trip the light fantastic, and music in the 1920s.

Learning Objectives

Clarify the irresolute social norms characterized by the rise of the flappers

Key Takeaways

Central Points

• Flappers  were young women known for their styles of short pilus, straight waists, and above-the-human knee hemlines, as well as for their general disdain for social and sexual norms.
• Flappers favored a young and boyish manner in women'south manner, which largely emerged every bit a result of French fashions, peculiarly those pioneered past the French designer Coco Chanel. Short pilus, flattened breasts, and directly waists were some common features of this expect.
• Trip the light fantastic clubs and contests became very popular in the 1920s. Classical pieces, operettas, and folk music were all transformed into pop dance melodies in order to satisfy the public craze for dancing. The Cotton Club and the Savoy Ballroom were pop venues.
• The most popular dances during the decade were the play a trick on-trot, waltz, and American tango. From the early 1920s, a  variety  of eccentric novelty dances were too adult including the Breakaway, Charleston, and Lindy Hop.

Key Terms

• Musical: A stage performance, show, or film that includes singing, dancing, and musical numbers performed by the cast.
• Jazz: A musical genre that originated in African-American communities during the belatedly nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It blended diverse styles including brass band, blues, and traditional African music to become a unique, international genre that continues to evolve today.
• Charleston: A pop dance during the 1920s, named for the oldest city in S Carolina.
• Coco Chanel: (19 August 1883–10 January 1971) A French designer of women'south clothes and founder of the Chanel brand. She is widely regarded as one of the greatest designers in the history of fashion.

The 1920s saw the rise of the flapper, a new breed of young women who wore curt skirts, bobbed their hair, danced, and flouted social and sexual norms. Flappers were known for their manner and the widespread popularization of new cultural trends that accompanied it. They personified the musical and dance movements emerging from the dance clubs playing jazz and new versions of former music, which became enormously popular in the 1920s and into the early on 1930s.

Flapper Style

Jazz and other new musical and trip the light fantastic forms exploded onto society in the 1920s. This pop-civilization motility was personified by the flappers, whose manner styles represented their costless spirits and new social openness. This way largely emerged as a result of French fashions, peculiarly those pioneered by the French designer Gabrielle Bonheur "Coco" Chanel. Called garçonne in French ("boy" with a feminine suffix), flapper style aimed to make girls appear young and adolescent: short pilus, flattened breasts, and straight waists were common features of this look. Although the styles typically associated now with flappers did not fully emerge until about 1926, there was an early association in the public listen between unconventional appearance, outrageous behavior, and the word "flapper."

Coco Chanel, 1920: Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel was a French designer who was highly influential in the flapper fashion mode of the 1920s.

The flapper await included short, disheveled hair in boyish styles such as the "bob cut," while finger waving was used equally a means of styling. The evolving flapper advent required "heavy makeup" in comparison to what had previously been acceptable outside of professional person use in the theater. With the invention of the metal lipstick container and meaty mirrors, bee stung lips and an emphatic oral fissure came into vogue. Huge, dark optics heavily outlined in mascara and kohl-rimmed, were in way. Blush came into fashion when it ceased to be a messy application process.

Pale pare was originally considered to be the nearly attractive, merely tanned pare became increasingly popular after Coco Chanel donned a tan later on spending too much time in the sun on holiday. A tan suggested a life of leisure, without the onerous need to work. In this way, women aspired to look fit, athletic, and salubrious. Jewelry usually consisted of Art Deco pieces, including beaded necklaces and brooches. Horn-rimmed glasses were also popular.

Despite any scandalous images flappers generated, their wait became stylish in a toned-down form among respectable older women. Significantly, the flappers removed the corset from female fashion, raised skirt and gown hemlines, and popularized short hair for women. Flapper dresses were directly and loose, leaving the arms bare and dropping the waistline to the hips. Silk or rayon stockings were held up by garters. Skirts rose to simply below the knee by 1927, assuasive flashes of leg to exist seen when a girl danced or walked through a breeze. Loftier heels between two and three inches likewise became popular.

Flappers did away with corsets and pantaloons in favor of "step-in" panties and simple bust bodices to keep their chests in place while dancing. They also wore new, softer and suppler corsets that reached to their hips, smoothing the whole frame, giving them a direct, up-and-down advent, equally opposed to the quondam corsets that slenderized the waist and accented the hips and bust.

The Flapper Magazine: The comprehend of the November 1922 issue of The Flapper magazine.

Dance Music, Clubs, and Contests

In the flapper catamenia, trip the light fantastic toe music took parts of diverse existing musical styles and created a new form. Classical pieces, operettas, and folk music were all transformed into popular trip the light fantastic melodies in gild to satiate the public craze for dancing. For example, many of the songs from the 1929 Technicolor musical operetta, The Rogue Song, starring the Metropolitan Opera star Lawrence Tibbett, were rearranged and released as dance music and became popular order hits in 1929.

The appearance of "talkies," motion pictures with synchronized sound, made musicals all the rage. Hollywood film studios flooded the box office with extravagant and lavish musical films, many of which were filmed in early Technicolor, a process that created colour motility pictures rather than the starker black-and-white films. One of the nearly popular of these musicals, Gold Diggers of Broadway, became the highest-grossing movie of the decade in 1929.

Gold Diggers of Broadway: The 1929 musical, Golden Diggers of Broadway, became the highest-grossing film of the decade.

The Harlem neighborhood of New York City played a key part in the development of dance styles by serving as the location of several pop amusement venues where people from all walks of life, races, and classes came together. The Cotton fiber Society featured black performers and catered to a white clientele, while the Savoy Ballroom catered to a mostly blackness clientele.

Dance Styles

Dance clubs beyond the U.s. sponsored contests in which dancers invented and competed with new moves and professionals began to hone their skills in tap dance and other current moves. The most popular dances throughout the decade were the fox-trot, waltz, and American tango. Large numbers of recordings labeled under these styles gave rise to a generation of famous recording and radio artists.

From the early 1920s, however, the dance scene produced a diverseness of eccentric trends. The first of these were the Breakaway and the Charleston, which were both based on African-American musical styles and beats, including the widely popular blues. The Charleston's popularity exploded later on its feature in 2 1922 Broadway shows. A brief Blackness Lesser dance craze, originating from the Apollo Theater, swept dance halls from 1926 to 1927, replacing the Charleston in popularity. By 1927, the Lindy Hop, based on the Breakaway and the Charleston and integrating elements of tap, became the dominant social dance and was the forebear of Swing dancing.

Josephine Baker does the Charleston: Celebrated vocalizer Josephine Baker dances the Charleston, one of the novelty dances that swept popular culture in the 1920s.

The Eugenics Motility

Eugenics, a prejudicial pseudoscience with roots in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, gained popularity and impacted American land and federal laws in the 1920s.

Learning Objectives

Describe the goals and consequences of the eugenics motility

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• The eugenics  movement, which had its roots in European pseudoscience, played a major office in debates on U.Southward.  immigration  policy, particularly with the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924. Many believed  immigrants  were junior and should exist prevented from marrying and convenance.
• State laws were written in the tardily nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to prohibit marriage and force sterilization of the mentally sick in order to prevent the "passing on" of mental illness to the next generation.
• Both class and race factored in to eugenic definitions of "fit" and "unfit." By using intelligence testing, American eugenicists asserted that social mobility was indicative of one's genetic fettle.
• American eugenicists provided the so-called scientific proof used to justify racial oppression in the United States and Europe. Nazi administrators on trial for war crimes in Nuremberg afterward World War Two justified more than 450,000 mass sterilizations by citing American eugenics programs as their inspiration.

Key Terms

• Charles B. Davenport: (1866–1944) A prominent American eugenicist and biologist. He was one of the leaders of the American eugenics move, which was straight involved in the sterilization of around lx,000 "unfit" Americans and strongly influenced the Holocaust in Europe.
• eugenics: A social philosophy that advocates the improvement of human hereditary qualities through selective breeding.
• Francis Galton: (1822–1911) A British sociologist and anthropologist who coined the term "eugenics" and promoted the idea of the survival of the fittest in humans through selective breeding.

Eugenics was a field sociological and anthropological study that became popular in the late nineteenth and early on twentieth centuries as a method of preserving and improving the population through cultivation of ascendant gene groups. Rather than considered scientific genetics, however, eugenics is now generally associated with racist and nativist elements who desired and then-called "scientific" evidence for prejudicial beliefs and government policies. The eugenics movement in the United States was used to justify laws enabling forced sterilizations of the mentally ill and prohibiting marriages and kid begetting by immigrants, while in Europe, eugenics theories were used by the Nazi authorities in Germany to justify thousands of sterilizations and, afterward, widespread murder.

Origins and Proliferation

In its time, eugenics was touted as scientific and progressive, the natural awarding of noesis near breeding to the arena of human life. Researchers interested in familial mental disorders conducted studies to document the heritability of illnesses such every bit schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression. Rather than true science, though, eugenics was merely an ill-considered social philosophy aimed at improving the quality of the human population past increasing reproduction between those with genes considered desirable—Nordic, Germanic, and Anglo-Saxon peoples—and limiting procreation past those whose genetic stock was seen as less favorable or unlikely to better the man genetic pool. The method considered about viable in attaining this goal was the prevention of marriage and breeding among targeted groups and individuals, but over time, the far more extreme action of sterilization became adequate.

While these ideas existed for centuries, the modern eugenics movement tin can be traced to the United kingdom in the late nineteenth and early on twentieth centuries. The theory of evolution made famous by Charles Darwin was used by English sociologist and anthropologist Francis Galton, a half cousin of Darwin, to promote the thought of a human survival of the fittest that could be enacted through selective breeding. He coined the term "eugenics" in 1883, and in 1909, wrote the foreword to the start volume of the Eugenics Review,the journal of the Eugenics Teaching Society, which named him as its honorary president.

Francis Galton: A one-half cousin of Charles Darwin, Francis Galton founded field of eugenics and promoted the comeback of the human gene pool through selective convenance.

Legitimizing and Legalizing

Eugenicists and supporters began organizing and holding formal discussions and conferences and publishing papers that proliferated through Europe and America. Three International Eugenics Congresses were held betwixt 1912 and 1932, the first taking identify in London. Leonard Darwin, son of Charles, presided over the coming together of near 400 delegates from numerous countries—including British luminaries such equally the Chief Justice Lord Balfour, and the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. The meeting served as an indication of the growing popularity of the eugenics movement.

Second International Eugenics Congress logo, 1921: Eugenics was a popular pseudoscience in the early decades of the twentieth century and was promoted through three International Eugenics Congresses between 1912 and 1932.

The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of Galton and included those who believed in the genetic superiority of specific Caucasian groups, supported strict immigration and anti-miscegenation laws, and supported the forcible sterilization of the poor, disabled, and "immoral."

Both class and race factored into eugenic definitions of "fit" and "unfit." Using intelligence testing, American eugenicists asserted that social mobility was indicative of one's genetic fitness. This reaffirmed the existing course and racial hierarchies and explained why the upper to middle form was predominately white, with eye to upper class status beingness a marker of "superior strains." Eugenicists believed poverty to be a feature of genetic inferiority, which meant that that those accounted "unfit" were predominately of the lower classes. Because poverty was associated with prostitution and "mental idiocy," women of the lower classes were the first to exist deemed "unfit" and "promiscuous." These women, who were primarily immigrants or women of colour, were discouraged from bearing children, and were encouraged to use birth control.

American eugenics research was funded by distinguished philanthropists and carried out at prestigious
universities, trickling downwardly to classrooms where it was presented equally a serious science. In 1906, J.H. Kellogg provided funding to assist institute the Race Betterment Foundation in Battle Creek, Michigan. The Eugenics Record Function (ERO) was founded in Cold Spring Harbor, New York, in 1911 by the renowned biologist Charles B. Davenport, using money from both the Harriman railroad fortune and the Carnegie Establishment.

Charles Benedict Davenport: American biologist Charles B. Davenport founded the Eugenics Tape Office in 1911.

Laws were written in the late nineteenth and early on twentieth centuries in America to prohibit marriage and to force sterilization of the mentally ill in order to prevent the "passing on" of mental illness to the adjacent generation. The offset land to introduce a compulsory sterilization bill was Michigan in 1897, but the proposed law failed to garner plenty votes past legislators to be adopted. Eight years later, Pennsylvania's state legislators passed a sterilization beak that was vetoed by the governor. Indiana became the showtime country to enact sterilization legislation in 1907, followed closely past Washington and California in 1909.

Consequences

Men and women were compulsorily sterilized for different reasons. Men were sterilized to treat their aggression and to eliminate their criminal behavior, while women were sterilized to control the results of their sexuality. Because women diameter children, eugenicists held women more than accountable than men for the reproduction of the less "desirable" members of gild. Eugenicists, therefore, targeted mostly women in their efforts to regulate the birth rate, to "protect" white racial wellness, and to weed out the
"defectives" of society.

Sterilization rates across the country were relatively low, California being the exception, until the 1927 Supreme Courtroom example Cadet v. Bell that legitimized the forced sterilization of patients at a Virginia abode for the mentally retarded. These statutes were not abolished until the mid-twentieth century, with approximately sixty,000 Americans legally sterilized.

Prior to the sterilization ruling in the Supreme Court, eugenicists had already played an important office in government policy by serving as expert advisers on the threat of "inferior stock" from eastern and southern Europe during the Congressional contend over immigration in the early 1920s. This led to passage of the federal Clearing Act of 1924, which reduced the number of immigrants from abroad to fifteen pct from previous years.

Harry H. Laughlin: Harry H. Laughlin served every bit director of the Eugenics Record Part in Common cold Spring Harbor, New York.

In that location are too straight links betwixt progressive American eugenicists such as Harry H. Laughlin and racial oppression in Europe. Laughlin wrote the Virginia model statute that was the footing for the Nazi Ernst Rudin's Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring. Earlier the realization of death camps in World War II, the thought that eugenics would lead to genocide was not taken seriously past the boilerplate American. When Nazi administrators went on trial for war crimes in Nuremberg after the state of war, notwithstanding, they justified more than than 450,000 mass sterilizations in less than a decade by citing U.Due south. eugenics programs and policies as their inspiration. These sterilizations were the precursor to the Holocaust, the Nazi attempt at genocide against Jews and other indigenous groups they deemed unfavorable to the homo gene pool.

The Southern Renaissance

The Southern Renaissance literary motility of the 1920s and 1930s bankrupt from the romantic view of the Confederacy.

Learning Objectives

Describe the Southern Renaissance

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• Authors of the Southern Renaissance addressed iii major themes: the burden of history related to  slavery and loss, conservative Southern culture, and the region's association with racism and slavery.
• The formation of the Fugitives, a group of poets and critics based in Nashville following Earth War I, is oft referred to every bit the beginning of the Southern Renaissance. William Faulkner is regarded as the Southern Renaissance's most influential and famous writer.
• Opposition to  industrialization  in the South following World State of war I was a popular theme amid Southern Renaissance writers, who became known as "Southern  Agrarians."
• African-American writers from the South, such as Richard Wright, were non considered part of the Southern Renaissance movement, which consisted exclusively of white authors.

Primal Terms

• The Fugitives: A grouping of poets and literary scholars who came together at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, U.s.a., effectually 1920.
• William Faulkner: (1897–1962) An American writer and Nobel laureate from Oxford,
  Mississippi. He is best known for his 1929 novel, The Audio and the Fury.
• H.L. Mencken: (1880–1956) A journalist, satirist, cultural critic, and scholar. Known as the "Sage of Baltimore," he is regarded as 1 of the most influential American writers and prose stylists of the outset one-half of the twentieth century.

The Southern Renaissance was a movement that reinvigorated American Southern literature in the 1920s and 1930s. The writers of the movement broke from common Southern cultural literary themes, notably the regrettable fall of the Confederacy, to accost more personal and modernized viewpoints including opposition to industrialization and the South'due south constant racism. The Southern Renaissance included famed writers such as William Faulkner, Tennessee Williams, and Robert Penn Warren. Perhaps ironically, nevertheless, this movement that explored racial questions and themes seemed to exclude African-American writers of the time.

Origins and Themes

In the 1920s, the satirist H.L. Mencken led the attack on the genteel tradition in American literature, ridiculing the provincialism of American intellectual life. In his 1920 essay, "The Sahara of the Bozart," a pun on a Southern pronunciation of "Beaux Arts," he singled out the Due south as the most provincial and intellectually barren region of the United states of america, claiming that since the Civil War, intellectual and cultural life there had gone into final decline. This created a tempest of protestation from within conservative circles in the S. Many emerging Southern writers, however, already highly critical of gimmicky life in the South, were emboldened by Mencken's essay. In response to the attacks of Mencken and his imitators, Southern writers were provoked to reassert Southern uniqueness and engage in a deeper exploration of the theme of Southern identity.

Henry Louis Mencken: H.Fifty. Mencken was an influential American writer and social critic who unwittingly helped to launch the Southern Renaissance literary motility.

The Fugitives

The commencement of the Southern Renaissance is often traced back to the activities of a grouping known every bit " The Fugitives," a collection of poets and critics based at Vanderbilt Academy in Nashville, Tennessee, but after the Globe War I. The grouping included John Crowe Bribe, Donald Davidson, Allen Tate, Robert Penn Warren, and others. Together they created the mag, The Fugitive (1922–1925), so named because the editors announced that they had fled, "from zero faster than from the high-caste Brahmins of the Old South."

The emergence of the Southern Renaissance as a literary and cultural movement also has been seen as a issue of the opening up of the predominantly rural South to outside influences due to the industrial expansion that took place in the region during and subsequently Globe War I. Southern opposition to industrialization was expressed in the famous essay drove, I'll Take My Stand: The South and the Agrarian Tradition (1930), written past authors and critics from the Southern Renaissance who came to be known every bit "Southern Agrarians."

Previously, Southern writers tended to focus on historical romances about the "Lost Cause" of the Confederate States of America, unremarkably known as the "Confederacy." This writing glorified the heroism of the Confederate Army and civilian population during the Civil War and the supposedly "idyllic civilisation" that existed in the antebellum South. Southern Renaissance writers broke from this tradition by addressing iii major themes in their works. The outset was the burden of history in a place where many people all the same personally remembered slavery, Reconstruction, and a devastating military defeat. The second was the South's bourgeois culture, specifically addressing how an individual could be without losing a sense of identity in a region where family, organized religion, and community were more than highly valued than i's personal and social life. The final theme was the South's troubling history with regard to racial issues.

Because of the chronological distance these writers had from the Civil War and slavery, they were able to bring objectivity to writings nigh the South. They also employed new, modern techniques such as stream of consciousness and circuitous narratives. Among the writers of the Southern Renaissance, William Faulkner is arguably the most influential and famous as the recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1949. Beyond Faulkner, playwright Tennessee Williams (Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, The Glass Menagerie), writer Robert Penn Warren (All the King's Men), and others including Caroline Gordon, Elizabeth Madox Roberts, Katherine Anne Porter, and Allen Tate were classified as Southern Renaissance writers.

William Faulkner, 1954: William Faulkner, author of the 1929 novel, The Sound and the Fury, was a leading voice in the Southern Renaissance movement.

Legacy

The Southern Renaissance inspired many Southern writers of the 1940s, '50s, and '60s, including authors Reynolds Price and Walker Percy, poet James Dickey, influential Southern Gothic movement members Flannery O'Connor and Carson McCullers, Pulitzer Prize and Presidential Medal of Liberty recipient Eudora Welty, and Harper Lee, who won the 1961 Pulitzer Prize for her novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, which is considered a classic of American literature.

Exclusion of African Americans

Despite many writers of the Southern Renaissance exploring the South's history of racism and slavery with an middle toward healing those wounds, none of the prominent African-American writers of the day were seen as part of this literary movement. While the Harlem Renaissance was considered a celebration and rebirth of African civilization in America, in that location were African-American writers who hailed from the South who were non necessarily slotted into either of the "Renaissance" groups.

Some of the well-nigh outspoken criticisms against the idea of the lost cause of the Confederacy came from African-American, Southern writers prior to World War I, including from Charles West. Chesnutt, who penned the novels, The Business firm Behind the Cedars in 1900 and The Marrow of Tradition the following year. Yet African-American writers were not considered office of the Southern literary tradition equally divers past the white, primarily male person authors who saw themselves as its creators and guardians. This is a rather glaring omission, considering the prominence of other notable African-American writers from the South such every bit Richard Wright, a Mississippi native and author of the renowned 1940 novel, Native Son.

Richard Wright: Native Son author Richard Wright was 1 of the notable African-American authors who has been arguably overlooked as part of the Southern literary tradition.

The Harlem Renaissance

The Harlem Renaissance was an arts and literary motion in the 1920s that brought African-American culture to mainstream America.

Learning Objectives

Analyze the Harlem Renaissance

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• Racial consciousness was the prevailing theme of the Harlem Renaissance, an African-American cultural movement in the 1920s named for the historically black Harlem neighborhood of New York Urban center.
• The Renaissance was built upon the "New Negro" movement, which was founded in 1917 past Hubert Harrison and Matthew Kotleski as a reaction to race and class problems, including calls for political equality and the end of segregation.
• In several essays included in the 1925 anthology,The New Negro, editor Alain Locke contrasted the "Onetime Negro" with the "New Negro" by stressing African-American assertiveness and self-conviction during the years following World War I and the Smashing  Migration.
• Seeking to counteract the rise in racism during the postwar years, black artists, writers, and musicians developed unique styles that challenged pervading stereotypes of African-American civilisation equally the Harlem Renaissance developed.
• While black-owned businesses supported the Harlem Renaissance, the movement also relied on the patronage of white Americans for the dissemination of its works.

Key Terms

• Marcus Garvey: (1887–1940) A Jamaican political leader, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a staunch proponent of the Black Nationalism and Pan-Africanism movements.
• New Negro Movement: A militant motility, founded in in 1916–1917 by Hubert Harrison and Negro League baseball star Matthew Kotleski, that was associated with the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s.
• Alain Locke: (1885–1954) An American writer, philosopher, educator, and patron of the arts.

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the 1920s and 1930s. Information technology sprang upwardly equally role of the "New Negro" movement, a political initiative founded in 1917 and later named after the 1925 anthology by Alain Locke. Though the Harlem Renaissance was centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City, many French-speaking black writers from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in Paris were also influenced by the Renaissance. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature," as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, was placed between 1924 and 1929.

New Negro Move

"New Negro" was a term used in African-American soapbox, beginning in 1895 and lasting for the starting time three decades of the twentieth century, to narrate an outspoken advocacy of dignity and a refusal to submit quietly to the practices and laws of Jim Crow racial segregation. Popularized by writer and philosopher Alain LeRoy Locke, the New Negro concept received its greatest attention around 1917 to 1928, when it became ameliorate known as the "Harlem Renaissance."

For African Americans, Earth War I highlighted the widening gap betwixt U.S. rhetoric regarding, "the state of war to make the world safety for democracy," and the reality of disenfranchised and exploited black farmers in the Due south and the poor and alienated residents of northern slums. In France, black soldiers experienced the kind of freedom they had never known in the United states of america, but returned to find that discrimination against blacks was just as active as it had been before the war. Many African-American soldiers who fought in segregated units during Earth War I, similar the Harlem Hellfighters, came home to a nation whose citizens frequently did not respect their accomplishments.

In 1916–1917, Hubert Harrison and Negro League baseball game star Matthew Kotleski founded the "New Negro" move, which energized the African-American community with race- and class-conscious demands for political equality and an end to segregation and lynching, also as calls for armed cocky-defence force when advisable.

In a 1925 anthology, The New Negro, which grew out of the 1924 special result of Survey Graphic on Harlem, editor Alain Locke assorted the "Old Negro" with the "New Negro" by stressing African-American assertiveness and self-conviction during the years following World War I and the Great Migration. Race pride had already been part of literary and political self-expression amongst African-Americans in the nineteenth century. Withal, it plant a new purpose and definition in the journalism, fiction, poetry, music, sculpture, and paintings of many figures associated with the Harlem Renaissance.

Alain Locke: A portrait of Alain LeRoy Locke, leader of the New Negro movement and inspirational figure of the Harlem Renaissance.

No 1 amend articulated the hopes and possibilities associated with the thought and ideal of the "New Negro" than the Harvard-trained philosophy professor Alain LeRoy Locke, who after described himself as the "midwife" to aspiring young black writers of the 1920s. Co-ordinate to Locke, The New Negro, whose publication by Albert and Charles Boni in December 1925 symbolized the culmination of the start stage of the New Negro Renaissance in literature, was assembled, "to document the New Negro culturally and socially—to register the transformations of the inner and outer life of the Negro in America that have so significantly taken place in the last few years." Highlighting its global scope, Locke compared the New Negro movement with the, "nascent movements of folk expression and self decision" that were taking place internationally.

Despite the challenges of race and class in the 1920s, a new spirit of hope and pride marked black activity and expression in all areas. The New Negro motion insisted on cocky-definition, cocky-expression, and self-determination, striving for what Locke called, "spiritual emancipation." The Harlem Renaissance participants who emerged from this new idealism, regardless of their generational or ideological orientation in aesthetics or politics, shared a sense of possibility. The many debates regarding art and propaganda, representation and identity, assimilation versus militancy, and parochialism versus globalism enriched perspectives on issues of art, culture, politics, and ideology that accept emerged in African-American civilization.

Origins of the Renaissance

During the early portion of the twentieth century, Harlem became dwelling house to a growing "Negro" middle course. In 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was purchased past diverse African-American realtors and a church group. Many more than African Americans arrived during World War I. Due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Not bad Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans from the South to cities such every bit Chicago, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and New York. Among them were a great number of artists whose influence would come to bear, especially in jazz music.

Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more contempo ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African-American communities. Race riots and other ceremonious uprisings occurred throughout the United states of america during the so-called Red Summer of 1919, reflecting economic competition over jobs and housing in many cities, as well equally tensions over social territories.

Theatre

The first phase of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s, notably with the 1917 premiere of Three Plays for a Negro Theatre. These plays, written by white playwright Ridgely Torrence, featured African-American actors carrying circuitous human emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the greasepaint and minstrel-show traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called the premieres of these plays, "the most important single effect in the unabridged history of the Negro in the American Theater."

Literature

In 1917 Hubert Harrison, "The Father of Harlem Radicalism," founded the Liberty League and The Vox, the starting time organization and the beginning newspaper, respectively, of the "New Negro" movement. Harrison's organization and newspaper were political, simply besides emphasized the arts, with his paper including "Verse for the People" and book-review sections. In 1927, in the Pittsburgh Courier newspaper, Harrison challenged the notion of the renaissance. He argued that the "Negro Literary Renaissance" notion disregarded, "the stream of literary and artistic products which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to the present," and said that the then-called "renaissance" was largely a white invention. It is truthful that W.Eastward.B. Du Bois had introduced the notion of "twoness" in his 1903 book, The Souls of Blackness Folk, which explored a divided awareness of ane's identity that was a unique critique of the social ramifications of racial consciousness. This work preempted the Harlem Renaissance, merely too undoubtedly offered some degree of inspiration and provender for its writers.

The works of the Harlem Renaissance appealed to a wide audience and marked a proliferation of African-American cultural influence, with magazines such as The Crisis, the periodical of the National Clan for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and Opportunity, the publication of the National Urban League, both employing Harlem Renaissance writers on their staffs, while white-owned publishing houses and magazines also supported the movement. Many authors began to publish novels, magazines, and newspapers during this time. Notable Harlem Renaissance figures included Locke, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Arna Bontemps, Nella Larson, Wallace Thurman, Countee Cullen, Jessie Fauset, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson, Jean Toomer, Alain Locke, and Eric D. Walrond.

Zora Neale Hurston: Author Zora Neale Hurston, best known for her novel, Their Optics Were Watching God, was one of the literary luminaries of the Harlem Renaissance.

Music

A new way of playing the piano, chosen the "Harlem Step Style," emerged during the Harlem Renaissance and helped blur the lines between poor Negros and socially elite Negros. The traditional jazz ring was composed primarily of brass instruments and considered a symbol of the South, but the piano was considered an instrument of the wealthy. With this instrumental modification to the existing genre, wealthy African Americans now had more admission to jazz music. Its popularity shortly spread throughout the country. Innovation and liveliness were important characteristics of performers in the beginnings of jazz. Musicians at the time—including Fats Waller, Duke Ellington, Jelly Roll Morton, and Willie "The Lion" Smith—showed keen talent and competitiveness and were considered to have laid the foundation for future musicians of their genre.

During this time period, the musical way of blacks was becoming more and more than attractive to whites. White novelists, dramatists, and composers started to exploit the musical tendencies and themes of African Americans in their ain works. Composers used poems written by African-American poets in their songs, while implementing the rhythms, harmonies, and melodies of African-American music—such as blues, spirituals, and jazz—into their concert pieces. African Americans besides began to merge with white artists in the classical earth of musical composition, which had long been popular among white audiences, peculiarly among the middle class and wealthy with roots going dorsum to Europe where classical music had been dominant for centuries.

Patronage

The Harlem Renaissance rested on a support organisation of black patrons and black-owned businesses and publications. Yet information technology as well received a great bargain of patronage from white Americans such every bit author and photographer Carl Van Vechten and philanthropist Charlotte Osgood Mason, who provided diverse forms of assistance, opening doors that otherwise would accept remained closed to the publication of work outside the African-American community. This back up ofttimes took the form of patronage or publication. Other whites were interested in so-called "primitive" cultures, every bit many viewed blackness American culture at that time, and wanted to see such "archaic" influences in the work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance.

Carl Van Vechten: Writer and photographer Carl Van Vechten was ane of the white patrons and proponents of the Harlem Renaissance.

Impact

The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the mail-World War Two phase of the Civil Rights movement. Moreover, many black artists who rose to artistic maturity afterward were inspired past this literary motility. The Harlem Renaissance was more a literary or artistic movement; it possessed a certain sociological development—especially through a new racial consciousness—through racial integration, as seen in the Back to Africa movement led by Marcus Garvey.

Langston Hughes, photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 1936: Langston Hughes was a prominent novelist and poet who emerged from the Harlem Renaissance.

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